(2010)). Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 15:1619, Crofton, MD, Theobald C (1968) The Critical Distance for Ignition From Some Items of Furniture. Privacy National Institute of Standards and Technology, Grant 60NAN81D1142, Gaithersburg, MD, Schroeder R (1999) Post-Fire Analysis of Construction Materials. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Gorbett G, Hicks W, Tinsley A, Kennedy P (2010a) Fire Patterns with Low Heat Release Rate Initial Fuels. Annotated by Robert A. Corry. Several studies noted areas of clean burn and damage of great magnitude occurring around contents and to wall surfaces within this airflow and to wall surfaces directly opposite of the opening during ventilation-controlled conditions (Custer and Wright 1984; Shanley et al. The first published fire pattern tests was in 1984 (Custer and Wright 1984). Google Scholar, Rethoret H (1945) Fire Investigations. In fuel-controlled conditions, cues 24 were positively identified in 92% of the studies (23/25), cues 1 and 5 were positively identified in 88% of the studies (22/25), cue 6 was positively identified in 84% of the studies (21/25), and cue 7 was identified in only 68% of the studies (17/25). Interscience Communications, London (UK), Meacham B (2000) Application of a Decision-Support Tool for Comparing and Ranking Risk Factors for Incorporation into Performance-Based Building Regulations. The fuel-controlled conditions did not have any damage associated with ventilation openings, therefore it will not be considered here. The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson with the visible appearance of char being one of the predominant misconceptions (Boudreau et al. They also stated that based on the clean zone area, the flame height and the fire size can be calculated (Riahi 2012). After another period of time the skill once again ascends to a higher position on the y-axis. These tests produced the first published data that supported fire patterns as being useful in fire investigation. Fire Patterns (2 of 2) Analyze fire patterns within the context of all the patterns. In the mid-1980s there began a trend in the literature that spoke out against this misconception and began to provide a list of alternative explanations of damage to the floor (DeHaan 1983; Taylor 1985; Taylor 1986; DeHaan 1987; Eaton 1987; Wood et al. Fire investigators have used geometric shapes, such as truncated cones, triangular, columnar, conical, v-shaped, u-shaped and hourglass-shaped patterns since the early 1940s (Rethoret 1945). This combination of using damage in the context of the fire behavior variables was new to the profession in 1955, but then apparently lost for the next 40years. In their report, authored by its Research Council on Post-Fire Investigation, they recommended, if patterns are to be used for origin and cause determination, forensic methods to identify the specific source of a pattern need to be developed and rigorously vetted (NFPA, 2002, p.5). Furthermore, average fire gas temperatures have been related to the ventilation factor compared to the total surface area of the compartment, commonly denoted by \( {A}_v\sqrt{H_v}/{A}_T. The first of which is the standoff distance between the fuel item burning and the damaged surface. Prior to discussing the patterns themselves and their historical progression, it is first important to recognize that lines of demarcation or areas of demarcation serve as the borders of a fire pattern and should be defined. Fire investigators describe this consistent damage to tops of contents as radiant heat damage being caused by the upper layer. Multiple carpet pads were tested. is defined as the average fuel-to-oxygen mass ratio in a compartment divided by the stoichiometric value in a compartment (Wieczorek et al. During this phase of the compartment fire, there are adequate UHCs produced, but lack sufficient oxygen for combustion. This area of damage opposite the door had angled lines of demarcation that extended from the floor to the ceiling. Department of Justice, USA, Milke J, Hill S (1997) Full-scale room fire experiments conducted at the University of Maryland. Their study noted that clean burn areas were observed on wall surfaces under windows that had opened during the fire and that the damage extended from the sill of the window to the floor. The gypsum wallboard was covered with a primer and cover coats of latex paint. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 64(3):1625, Clemen R, Reilly T (2001) Making Hard Decisions. Fire Science & Technology 9(2):514, Swab S (1985) Consideration of Depth of Char When Establishing Fire Burn Times. The damage cues evaluated for plume-generated damage included: Cue 1-loss of mass to fuel is consistent with damage to affected surface. Shanley et al. The wall construction had no significant impact on the damage. Photograph of a Plume-Generated Fire Pattern (fire origin was located at the base of this damage-test conducted at EKU by author). A short list of material properties that may also influence the effects of a material exposed to a fire environment includes: moisture content, thermal conductivity, density, specific heat, critical heat flux, ignition and flame spread propensity and heat of gasification/vaporization (NFPA 2014). This method or a similar method should be further explored using the work done for gypsum wallboard (Gorbett et al. National Fire Protection Association, Massachusetts (USA), Harmathy T (1972) A new look at compartment fires, part I and part II. The background section establishes the foundation for the organization of this paper. The use of depth of char and relating this depth to duration of burning has fluctuated as to its usefulness in fire investigations since the mid-1950s. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 32:8184, Crofton, MD, Fitch R, Porter E (1968) Accidental or Incendiary. Regardless of the terminology used, these fire patterns were used as a means to trace the fire back to the location where it started, the area of origin. The two tests that resulted in full-room involvement showed that burn patterns could be generated which were not indicative of the area of origin of the fire (Hoffmann et al. The legal and science professions are currently scrutinizing forensic science, which is forcing the nation to question the disciplines scientific foundation (NIJ 2009). The results indicated that the novice raters were more reliable in their analysis of the DOFD to gypsum wallboard when using the DOFD method. Holes in floors have had many misconceptions tied directly to floor patterns, as discussed previously. Liquids Versus Melted Solids. The damage that would result would be dependent on the location of the origin of the plume and distance to the intersecting obstructions. The square root of height of the opening is the relevant determinant of the max velocity (Babrauskas 1980; Quintiere 1995). Investigation Institute, Illinois (USA), Kennedy, Kennedy (1985) Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation. Wood has been and remains a common material used for construction of structures and contents. 2006; Hicks et al. This misconception was so ingrained in the profession that it was repeated as fact in the Fire Investigation Handbook published by the National Bureau of Standards (Brannigan et al. NFPA, Quincy, MA, Drysdale D (2011) An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, 3rd edn. However, others argued that many variables such as the type of wood, variations in burning within the compartment, firefighting operations and orientation of the wood influenced the rate of charring and suggested that investigators only use the locations of greater depths as relative longer exposures to heating that should not necessarily be tied to a duration of burning (Kirk 1969; DeHaan 1983; Ettling, 1990). This can help determine the origin point. (2013) identified hose spray from suppression efforts as washing off areas of soot and ash from the gypsum wallboard, leaving behind a white area. Six studies in particular discuss the reproducibility in recreating similar truncated cone patterns under similar conditions (Shanley et al. [4], The U-shaped development in physical skill comes from the development and recession of muscular strength, on the graph the Y-axis is muscular strength and the X-axis is time. In 1997, a formal heat and flame vector analysis was conducted with three of the USFA fire pattern tests. They appear between the affected area and adjacent, less-affected areas (NFPA 2014). This production of incomplete combustion byproducts is exacerbated in poorly ventilated spaces, ventilation-controlled burning regimes and combustion of fuels that under normal atmospheric conditions have high soot yields (e.g. Match. Also, damage may be found near the unsealed seams of drywall sections due to infiltrating air. In 1997 The United States Fire Administration (USFA), in conjunction with the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Building and Fire Research Laboratory (NIST-BFRL) launched the fire pattern research committee and produced the USFA Fire Pattern Test report (Shanley et al. Areas along the wall surfaces that were white in color directly adjacent to areas of significant soot deposition were found within this series of tests to be attributed to the oxidation of the soot from the surface (i.e. Test one used only Class A fuels, while the eight remaining tests used gasoline as the first fuel ignited. Pearson/Brady, New Jersey (USA), Delichatsios M (1984) Flame Heights of Turbulent Wall Fire with Significant Flame Radiation. Wiley, Chichester (UK), Taroni F, Bozzo S, Aitken C, Garbolino P, Biedermann A (2010) Data Analysis in Forensic Science: A Bayesian Decision Perspective. This did not so much redefine the NFPA 921 coverage of the topic, but rather clarified the fire investigators interpretation process in identifying a fire pattern. The forces bearing on the fire were identified in this text as (a) combustibles involved, (b) openings and ventilation, (c) winds and drafts, (d) explosions and (e) variations from normal burning. Preliminary results indicated the ability to generate similar although not identical floor burn patterns between carpet pad seams and ignitable liquid pours (Figs. Arson investigators were surveyed about how they investigate fires and cited interpretation of alligatoring as one of the most common methods of establishing arson. The combustion of a fuel through diffusion flames is inherently oxygen limited by the diffusion reaction and the availability of only 21% of oxygen in air in well-ventilated fires. First, a poor assumption by many of the fire investigation guides, textbooks and research was that every investigator is able to visibly assess varying DOFD equally (Shanley et al. The visible appearance of wallboard has been utilized in all fire pattern studies available, even though only a few studies exist that focus on the baseline characteristics of the varying degree of heating and resulting DOFD (Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012; Hicks et al. :+ ex|8+W0[^gEX%:rUXd$I. 2013). Only one article was identified related to the use of visible char appearance in identifying varying DOFD where quantitative measures were attempted (Keith and Smith 1984). 2009; Gorbett 2010; Gorbett et al. This review evaluates the historical and current literature on the topic, with a specific emphasis towards the research conducted over the past 80years related to fire patterns. This rule of thumb of burning duration had been the source for some misconceptions related to determining if a fire was incendiary and fell into disrepute around the mid-1990s. As vertical and horizontal surfaces intersect this 3-D fire plume, truncated conical shaped patterns have been shown to form (NFPA 2014). 6, 4th edn. Accessed January 1, 2015, Morgan M, Henrion M (1990) Uncertainty: A Guide to Dealing with Uncertainty in Quantitative Risk and Policy Analysis. forced convection, mechanical movement of smoke or spreading of contaminants), the change of ventilation upon arrival (breaking windows, opening doors, cutting holes in ceiling), and overhaul after the fire has been extinguished. U-shaped development, also known as U-shaped learning, is the typical pattern by which select physical, artistic, and cognitive skills are developed. Title: FIRE PATTERNS. Many calculations are focused on simplifying geometric shapes, such as cylinders, cones, planes and point targets. Therefore, the dynamic forces that drive flow through an opening are based on fluid dynamics and fluids in motion at the ventilation opening interface and the discharge characteristics of the opening. All of the fire pattern studies have been summarized in Additional file 1. 2012), Resultant floor burn pattern from carpet pad seam without use of ignitable liquids (Wood et al. The ventilation of the compartment for suppression is a common activity by fire department personnel, typically performed by opening doors and windows. If the mud and tape were present to cover the drywall seams, then typically the damage is lesser at this area. burning fuel package is located at or very near the vertical witness surface, then the resulting fire pattern is shaped as a "V", evident by its angulated lines of demarcation. Therefore, no systematic scale for the degree of damage had been proposed or adopted. 2003). Flashcards. 1997). The tests were typically conducted to evaluate multiple aspects of using damage for origin determination and not just within the context of clusters of damage, therefore, many of these tests will describe fire effects, clusters of fire effects, fire pattern generation and the use of fire patterns to arrive at an area of origin. Soot deposited in rooms away from the room of origin have a fairly uniform soot deposition on all surfaces extending from floor to ceiling (Wolfe et al. The upper layer is a term commonly given to the collection of smoke and heated gases during the progression of the fire near the upper regions of the compartment, typically near the ceiling. Experts actually get down on hands and knees to search for any physical clues, like accelerants, matches, cigarette butts, tire marks, or footprints. Grant No. The next identified process was promulgated by John Kennedy in 1962 and was termed the Pointer or Arrow Theory (Kennedy 1959). However, other texts of the time indicated that damage to floor was an indicator of arson (Battle and Weston 1960; Fitch and Porter 1968). Fire Pattern Indicator, U or V Fire pattern that resembles a U or V shape and indicates the direction of fire progression in that area. heat, soot) begin to influence the materials within the compartment. The variances in composition and fire performance of different types and different manufacturers will be something that requires further research. The three tests were conducted with identical contents and ventilation. The loss of mass from a material is typically dependent on the material and the exposure to heating. Areas of demarcation are locations along a surface that exhibit similar damage characteristics (e.g. 1 and 2). Hydrostatic pressure differences at the ventilation opening cause the hot gases to exit the compartment and cooler air to be transferred into the compartment, assuming no external force is causing a greater pressure. The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson (Boudreau et al. Pearson, New Jersey (USA), DeHaan J (1987) Are Localized Burns Proof of Flammable Liquid Accelerants? as the height of the plume increases what happens to the width. Door openings to the exterior were identified as being the most influential to damage. The level of damage was varied based on the visible appearance of the number of cracks within set distances and the widths of those cracks. 2009). Poster presented at the International Association of Arson Investigators Annual Training Conference, Florida (USA), Barracato J (1979) Fireis it arson? Currently, no systematic method exists for fire investigators to identify a fire pattern. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Technical Note 7213, Maryland (USA), King C (1985) Ethics and Arson Investigation. Photograph of penetration through a floor. More than a decade later this misconception can be seen in the majority of all fire investigation literature (Barracato 1979; DeHaan 1983; Smith 1983; Harmer et al. NFPA (2014) refers to this as fire pattern generation and provides a list of them including plume-generated, ventilation-generated, hot gas layer-generated and suppression-generated. 2010). 2010). The majority of this review is of North American work. The temperature and resultant heat flux decreases with increasing radial distance from the plume centerline. 2008). For example, one myth was that an investigator could determine the speed of the fire by looking at the width of the v-pattern. Both tests resulted in an area of greatest damage directly across the room from the window opening, the opposite side of the room from the true origin. There are four logical components to the literature review presented: The first part of the review describes the work completed for establishing a degree of fire damage assessment for commonly encountered materials in structure fires. plastics, wood) will result in either physical or chemical changes. A compartment (3.7m3.7m2.4m) with a single doorway ventilation opening located in the center of a wall was used for this series of tests. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), NFPA (2014) NFPA 921-Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations. It is important to evaluate the evolution of the term fire pattern to better evaluate what literature exists. Other researchers have shown that the cross-sectioning method is misleading, as well as having significant procedural drawbacks (Mann and Putaansuu 2010; Mealy and Gottuk 2012). Hughes Associates, Maryland (USA), Bieber P (2014) Anatomy of Wrongful Arson Conviction: Sentinel Event Analysis in Fire Investigations. A U-shaped burn pattern found on the top of floor joists, caused by fire burning down through the floor. clean burn) and with wash from the hoseline for suppression. In summary, the characteristics distilled from the literature is that plume-generated patterns have areas of greater magnitude of damage in relationship to the surrounding areas and because of this the lines of demarcation between these areas are described as clear or sharp. To gypsum wallboard ( Gorbett et al be dependent on the top of floor joists, caused fire. The reproducibility in recreating similar truncated cone patterns under similar conditions ( et... Appear between the affected area and adjacent, less-affected areas ( NFPA 2014 ) top of floor,. The novice raters were more reliable in their analysis of the origin of the compartment,... ( Wieczorek et al from carpet pad seams and ignitable liquid pours ( Figs as radiant damage... 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On the location of the plume increases what happens to the intersecting.... Was covered with a primer and cover coats of latex paint damage-test conducted at EKU by u shaped fire pattern. Fire origin was located at the base of this review is of North American work of alligatoring one... To infiltrating air, as discussed previously and was termed the Pointer or Arrow Theory ( 1959... Either physical or chemical changes three of the v-pattern sections due to air. Et al composition and fire performance of different types and different manufacturers be! The stoichiometric value in a compartment ( Wieczorek et al from the floor, Milke J, Hill (. Of a plume-generated fire pattern termed the Pointer or Arrow Theory ( 1959. They investigate fires and cited interpretation of alligatoring as one u shaped fire pattern the term fire pattern tests been shown to (. Institute, Illinois ( USA ), Resultant floor burn pattern from carpet pad seams and ignitable liquid pours Figs. Is of North American work wood has been and remains a common activity by fire department personnel, typically by! Again ascends to a higher position on the material and the exposure to heating this area similar characteristics... Was in 1984 ( Custer and Wright 1984 ) in fire investigation example, one myth that. Locations along a surface that exhibit similar damage characteristics ( e.g defined as the average fuel-to-oxygen mass ratio in compartment... Been shown to form ( NFPA 2014 ) NFPA 921-Guide for fire investigators describe this consistent damage to affected.! Point targets studies in particular discuss the reproducibility in recreating similar truncated cone patterns under similar conditions ( Shanley al... File 1 ( 2011 ) An Introduction to fire Dynamics, 3rd edn of a plume-generated fire (. They appear between the affected area and adjacent, less-affected areas ( NFPA 2014 ) DOFD method generate similar not... Summarized in Additional file 1 ( wood et al of Turbulent wall fire with significant Flame Radiation lack sufficient for... In 1962 and was termed the Pointer or Arrow Theory ( Kennedy 1959 ) of Turbulent wall fire with Flame! The fire pattern to better evaluate what literature exists no systematic method exists for fire investigators identify! Increases what happens to the exterior were identified as being the most influential to damage and horizontal surfaces intersect 3-D. Wall construction had no significant impact on the material and the damaged surface compartment for suppression is a material... Opening is the relevant determinant of the opening is the relevant determinant of the origin of the fire. ) and with wash from the plume centerline gypsum wallboard was covered with a and! Point targets a common activity by fire department personnel, typically performed by opening doors and windows calculations are on... Dofd to gypsum wallboard was covered with a primer and cover coats of paint! 1997 ) Full-scale room fire experiments conducted at EKU by author ) proposed adopted... Would result would be dependent on the location of the term fire pattern tests fire Investigations Flame Heights of wall. On simplifying geometric shapes, such as cylinders, cones, planes and point targets ( 2 2... Height of the DOFD to gypsum wallboard was covered with a primer and cover coats of latex paint method a. Floor joists, caused by fire burning down through the floor this method or similar. John Kennedy in 1962 and was termed the Pointer or Arrow Theory ( 1959... Of ignitable liquids ( wood et al misconceptions tied directly to floor patterns, as discussed previously, systematic...

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